INDEPENDENCE DAY SONG

HISTORY OF COMPUTER

First substantial computer was the giant ENIAC machine by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator) used a word of 10 decimal digits instead of binary ones like previous automated calculators/computers. ENIAC was also the first machine to use more than 2,000 vacuum tubes, using nearly 18,000 vacuum tubes. Storage of all those vacuum tubes and the machinery required to keep the cool took up over 167 square meters (1800 square feet) of floor space. Nonetheless, it had punched-card input and output and arithmetically had 1 multiplier, 1 divider-square rooter, and 20 adders employing decimal "ring counters," which served as adders and also as quick-access (0.0002 seconds) read-write register storage.

The executable instructions composing a program were embodied in the separate units of ENIAC, which were plugged together to form a route through the machine for the flow of computations. These connections had to be redone for each different problem, together with presetting function tables and switches. This "wire-your-own" instruction technique was inconvenient, and only with some license could ENIAC be considered programmable; it was, however, efficient in handling the particular programs for which it had been designed. ENIAC is generally acknowledged to be the first successful high-speed electronic digital computer (EDC) and was productively used from 1946 to 1955. A controversy developed in 1971, however, over the patentability of ENIAC's basic digital concepts, the claim being made that another U.S. physicist, John V. Atanasoff, had already used the same ideas in a simpler vacuum-tube device he built in the 1930s while at Iowa State College. In 1973, the court found in favor of the company using Atanasoff claim and Atanasoff received the acclaim he rightly deserved.

Hardware Progression

The vacuum tube, used up to this time in almost all the computers and calculating machines, had been invented by American physicist Lee De Forest in 1906. The vacuum tube, which is about the size of a human thumb, worked by using large amounts of electricity to heat a filament inside the tube until it was cherry red. One result of heating this filament up was the release of electrons into the tube, which could be controlled by other elements within the tube. De Forest's original device was a triode, which could control the flow of electrons to a positively charged plate inside the tube. A zero could then be represented by the absence of an electron current to the plate; the presence of a small but detectable current to the plate represented a one.

Vacuum tubes were highly inefficient, required a great deal of space, and needed to be replaced often. Computers of the 1940s and 50s had 18,000 tubes in them and housing all these tubes and cooling the rooms from the heat produced by 18,000 tubes was not cheap. The transistor promised to solve all of these problems and it did so. Transistors, however, had their problems too. The main problem was that transistors, like other electronic components, needed to be soldered together. As a result, the more complex the circuits became, the more complicated and numerous the connections between the individual transistors and the likelihood of faulty wiring increased.

In the 1950's two devices would be invented that would improve the computer field and set in motion the beginning of the computer revolution. The first of these two devices was the transistor. Invented in 1947 by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell Labs, the transistor was fated to oust the days of vacuum tubes in computers, radios, and other electronics.

PERSONAL COMPUTER 

IBM, which up to this time had been producing mainframes and minicomputers for medium to large-sized businesses, decided that it had to get into the act and started working on the Acorn, which would later be called the IBM PC. The PC was the first computer designed for the home market which would feature modular design so that pieces could easily be added to the architecture. Most of the components, surprisingly, came from outside of IBM, since building it with IBM parts would have cost too much for the home computer market. When it was introduced, the PC came with a 16,000 character memory, keyboard from an IBM electric typewriter.

1960s saw large mainframe computers become much more common in large industries and with the US military and space program. IBM became the unquestioned market leader in selling these large, expensive, error-prone, and very hard to use machines.

Also introduced in 1977 was the TRS-80. This was a home computer manufactured by Tandy Radio Shack. In its second incarnation, the TRS-80 Model II, came complete with a 64,000 character memory and a disk drive to store programs and data on. At this time, only Apple and TRS had machines with disk drives. With the introduction of the disk drive, personal computer applications took off as a floppy disk was a most convenient publishing medium for distribution of software.

By 1984, Apple and IBM had come out with new models. Apple released the first generation Macintosh, which was the first computer to come with a graphical user interface(GUI) and a mouse. The GUI made the machine much more attractive to home computer users because it was easy to use. Sales of the Macintosh soared like nothing ever seen before. IBM was hot on Apple's tail and released the 286-AT, which with applications like Lotus 1-2-3, a spreadsheet, and Microsoft Word, quickly became the favourite of business concerns.

NATURAL GAS

Introduction to Natural gas :

It is a mixture of hydrocarbons (molecules that contain only carbon and hydrogen and gases (most notably methane, ethane, propane, and butane) that exist naturally in rocks beneath the surface of the earth. it is widely used as a heating source, and in some cases specific portions of the natural gas are used as starting materials in industrial processes. natural gas is the product of the decaying of living matter over millions of years.Natural gas is colourless, odourless, tasteless, shapeless and lighter than air. it is gaseous at any temperature over -161° c. when it is at its natural state, it is not possible to see or smell natural gas. for safety reasons, a chemical odorant that smells a little like rotten eggs, mercaptan, is added to natural gas so that it can be smelled if there is a gas leak.
The carbon and hydrogen in natural gas are thought to have originated from the remains of plants and animals that were accumulated at the bottom of lakes and oceans over millions of years. After having been buried under huge layers of other sediments, the organic material is transformed into crude oil and natural gas as a result of the high pressure from the layers of sediments and the heat from the earth's core. The oil and gas are then squeezed out of the marine shales in which they were deposited, and from there go into porous sedimentary rocks. oil and gas migrates upward through the porous rock, as it is less dense than the water, which fills the pores. 

Occurance of natural gas:

Natural gas is found throughout the world in reservoirs deep beneath the surface of the earth and floor of the oceans. It forms as pockets of gas over crude oil deposits or is trapped in porous rock formations. Natural gas can be found in oil deposits, as associated natural gas, although non-associated natural gas is often found without the presence of oil.

Natural gas is considered as a clean fuel because of its environmentally friendly properties: commercialised natural gas is practically sulphur free 

Natural gas - chemical composition:

The primary component of natural gas is methane (ch4), the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon molecule. it may also contain heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as ethane (c2h6), propane (c3h8) and butane (c4h10), as well as other sulphur containing gases, in varying amounts, see also natural gas condensate

Natural gas is used to produce steel, glass, paper, clothing, brick, electricity and as an essential raw material for many common products. Some products that use natural gas as a raw material are: paints, fertilizer, plastics, antifreeze, dyes, photographic film, medicines, and explosives.

Natural gas & uses as source of energy

The ability to liquefy the components of natural gas (either as a mixture or in isolation) has made natural gas much more practical as a energy source.. the liquefaction of natural gas's components of the different boiling points of methane, ethane, and other gases as a way of purifying each substance. a combination of refrigeration and increased pressure allows the individual gases to be stored and transported conveniently. at one time, the natural gas which often accompanied petroleum. NGVS are natural gas powered vehicles. natural gas can be used as a motor vehicle fuel in two ways: as compressed natural gas (CNG), which is the most common form, and as liquefied natural gas.

Domestic use:

Natural gas is supplied to homes, where it is used for such purposes as cooking in natural gas-powered ranges and/or ovens, natural gas-heated clothes dryers, heating/cooling and central heating. home or other building heating may include boilers, furnaces, and water heaters. cng is used in rural homes without connections to piped-in public utility services, or with portable grills.

EDUCATION FOR ALL

People living in the backwards areas are not getting proper benefits of good educational as they lack money and other resources. However, some new and effective strategies has been planned and implemented by the government to resolve the problems in such areas. Education improves the mental status and change the way of thinking of a person. It brings confidence and helps to convert the thinking into the action to go ahead and get success and experience.

Education is the most important factor which plays a great role in the development of an individual as well as a country. Now a day, it has become a vital factor for the future brightness of the new generations of any society. Education influences lives of everyone in positive ways and teaches us to tackle any big or small problems in life. Even after a big awareness in the society towards the necessity of education for everyone, the percentage of education is still not same in different areas of the country.

Some people are completely uneducated and living very painful life because of the lack of knowledge and skill. Some people are educated but do not have enough skill to earn money for their daily routine just because of the lack of proper education system in the backwards areas. Thus we should try to have equal opportunities of good education system for everyone whether living in rich or poor regions. A country cannot grow and develop without the individual growth and development of its citizens. Thus the development of any country depends hugely on the education standard available to its citizens. A good education system must have common goals in every areas of country to provide a suitable and proper learning to its citizens.

Without education life becomes aimless and tough. So we should understand the importance of the education and its involvement in our daily lives. We should encourage the education in the backward areas by letting them know the benefits of education. Disabled people and poor people are equally required and have equal rights to get educated like rich and common people to get global development. Each of us should try our best to get educated at higher level as well as make the good education accessible for everyone globally particularly the poor and disabled people.

Education is such a ship that takes to the port of success”. If you climb this ship, you can easily cross the sea of troubles and difficulties and make your life meaningful. Good morning to one and all. Today on the occasion of world education day, I would like to express my views regarding the need to educate all. We all know India is the second most populated country of the world. Its huge population is considered as a liability rather than an asset. Making investments in the form of education can make this huge population a valuable asset. Yes friends it is education which makes our living meaningful! Hence it is very important to educate all the citizens of our country. Education facilities are very much present in urban areas. Most people in cities and towns send their children to schools. It is rural areas which require more attention. More schools and colleges need to be set up in the rural areas. Government should try to promote more awareness among the people about the importance of education and how it enlightens their lives. Above all, we as responsible and educated citizens of our country need to join hands and make efforts to educate our fellow countrymen and turn them into valuable assets, important for the nation’s progress. It is very for each one to realize that education is the tree which bears the fruits of success.

FOOTBALL

The history of football (soccer)

Football (or soccer as the game is called in some parts of the world) has a long history. Football in its current form arose in England in the middle of the 19th Century. But alternative versions of the game existed much earlier and are a part of the football history.

Early history and the precursors of football

The first known examples of a team game involving a ball, which was made out of a rock, occurred in old Mesoamerican cultures for over 3000 years ago. According to the sources, the ball would symbolize the sun and the captain of the losing team would be sacrificed to the gods.

The first known ball game which also involved kicking took place In China in the 3rd and 2nd century BC under the name Cuju. Cuju was played with a round ball on an area of a square. It later spread to Japan and was practiced under ceremonial forms.

Other earlier variety of ball games had been known from Ancient Greece. The ball was made by shreds of leather filled with hair. The first documents of balls filled with air are from the 7th century. In the Ancient Rome, games with balls were not included in the entertainment on the big arenas, but could occur in exercises in the military. It was the Roman culture that would bring football to the British island (Britannica). It is, however, uncertain in which degree the British people were influenced by this variability and in which degree they had developed their own variants.

The game of football takes its form

The most admitted story tells that the game was developed in England in the 12th century. In this century games that resembled football were played on meadows and roads in England. Besides from kicks, the game involved also punches of the ball with the fist. This early form of football was also much more rough and more violent than the modern way of playing. An important feature of the forerunners to football was that the games involved plenty of people and took place over large areas in towns (an equivalent was played in Florence from the 16th Century where it was called Calcio). The rampage of these games would cause damage on the town and sometimes death. These would be among the reasons for the proclamations against the game that finally was forbidden for several centuries. But the football-like games would appear again in the streets of London in the 17th Century. It would be forbidden gain in 1835, but at this stage the game had been established in the public schools.

The game was often played in schools and two of the predominant schools were Rugby and Eton. At Rugby the rules included the possibility to take up the ball with the hands and the game we today know as rugby has its origin from here. At Eton on the other hand the ball was played exclusively with the feet and this game can be seen as a close predecessor to the modern football. The game in Rugby was called “the running game” while the game in Eton was called “the dribbling game”.

An attempt to create proper rules for the game was done at a meeting in Cambridge in 1848, but a final solution to some questions of rules was not achieved. Another important event in the history of football come about in 1863 in London when the first Football association was formed in England. It was decided that carrying the ball with the hands wasn't allowed. The meeting also resulted in a standardization of the size and weight of the ball. A consequence of the London meeting was that the game was divided into two codes: association football and rugby.

The development of football rules. 

Another important difference at this stage could be noticed between English and Scottish teams. Whereas the English teams preferred to run forward with the ball in a more rugby fashion, the Scottish chose to pass the ball between their players. It would be the Scottish approach that soon became predominant. 

The sport was at first an entertainment for the British working class. Unprecedented amounts of spectators, up to 30 000, would see big matches in the late 19th century. The game would soon expand by British peoples that traveled to other parts of the world. Especially in South America and India the interest in football would become big.

The first football clubs

Football clubs have existed since the 15th century, but unorganized and without official status. It is therefore hard to decide which the first football club was. Some historians suggest that it was the Foot-Ball Club formed 1824 in Edinburgh. Earlier clubs were often formed by former school students and the first of this kind was formed in Sheffield in 1855. The oldest among professional football clubs is the English club Notts County that was formed in 1862 and still exists today. 

In the beginning, football was dominated by public school teams, but later, teams consisting by workers would make up the majority of those. Another change was successively taking place when some clubs became willing to pay the best players to join their team. This would be the start of a long period of transition, not without friction, in which the game would develop to a professional level. 

The motivation behind paying players was not only to win more matches, but in the 1880s the interest in the game has moved ahead to a level that tickets were sold to the matches. And finally, in 1985 professional football was legalized and three years later the Football League was established. During the first season, 12 clubs joined the league, but soon more clubs became interested and the competition would consequently expand into more divisions.

As with many things in history, women were for a long time excluded from participating in games. It was not before the late 19th Century that women started to play football.

The first competitions

In 1883, the first international tournament took place and included four national teams: England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in 1904 and a foundation act was signed by representatives from France, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. England and the other British countries did not join FIFA from the start, they had invented the game and saw no reason to subordinate to an association. Still, they joined in the following year, but would not partake in the World cup until 1950.

In 1908 would football for the first time be included as an official sport in the Olympic Games. Until the first FIFA World Cup was played in 1930, the Olympic Games football tournament would rank as the most prestigious. Women's football was not added until 1996.

A game of passion

Already in the late 19th century Goodison Park was built in England in purpose of hosting football games. In 1894, the FA Cup final between Notts County and Bolton Wanderers was attended by 37,000 people. A milestone in football stadiums is the construction of Maracanã Stadium. In the year of 1950 the imposing stadium in Rio de Janeiro was ready for almost 200,000 people. No other sport has seen stadiums of that capacity built to host its games.

The great competitions

No other sport event besides the Olympic Games can today measure itself with the FIFA WORLD CUP. The first edition of the FIFA World Cup was played in 1930 in Uruguay and has since then returned every fourth year (with two exceptions due to the Second World War). In 1991 the first World Cup for women was held in China and has since then also returned every fourth year.

The name of the game: football or soccer?

In most parts of the world, football is used as the name for the "chess of the green pitch", the biggest sport in the world. In the United States and Canada, however, soccer is used instead as a distinction from American football. A more formal name sometimes used is association football, but in popular speech, it is either football or soccer.

WORLD CUP FOOTBALL CHAMPIONS

For a list of World Cup champions, see table.

FIFA World Cup

year	result
*Won after extra time (AET).
**Won on penalty kicks.
1930	Uruguay	4	Argentina	2
1934	Italy*	2	Czechoslovakia	1
1938	Italy	4	Hungary	2
1950	Uruguay	2	Brazil	1
1954	West Germany	3	Hungary	2
1958	Brazil	5	Sweden	2
1962	Brazil	3	Czechoslovakia	1
1966	England*	4	West Germany	2
1970	Brazil	4	Italy	1
1974	West Germany	2	Netherlands	1
1978	Argentina*	3	Netherlands	1
1982	Italy	3	West Germany	1
1986	Argentina	3	West Germany	2
1990	West Germany	1	Argentina	0
1994	Brazil**	0	Italy	0
1998	France	3	Brazil	0
2002	Brazil	2	Germany	0
2006	Italy**	1	France	1
2010	Spain*	1	Netherlands	0
2014	Germany*	1	Argentina	0
2018	France	4	Croatia	2

POLLUTION CAN BE DESTROY OUR FUTURE

KEEP OUR WORLD POLLUTION FREE.

 

Environment pollution is the mixing of harmful pollutants into the environment causing disturbance to the natural processes and cycles. Various types of environmental pollution are categorized as the water pollution, air pollution, land pollution and noise pollution. Production of solid and liquid wastes on large-scale from the industries, emissions of hazardous gases, deforestation, global warming, and many more problems originated by the human beings are the main reasons of increasing the environmental pollution. In the last one decade, there is a great increase in the level of environmental pollution and scenario has become worse than earlier.

In the whole universe, there is only one planet named earth provides facility of all basic elements required for the life existence. It gives us life and what we give it, pollution. However, it was much better that if we give it nothing but we give it pollution and contamination regularly. As we all live on this planet, we all are highly responsible for the maintenance of the earth. However, we all forget our responsibility and busy in our daily routine and competitions to just fulfill our needs in anyways. Fresh air and clean water are two most basic needs to sustain life but nothing of both is possible in the modern time. It seems that, after some decades here would be no man, no plants, no animals and no life.

All the natural gases in the environment make their balance by reacting each other. Some of them are used as a food by the plants like carbon dioxide. But, just imagine what happened when we start finishing plants. Decreasing number of plants causes less use of carbon dioxide which gets spread into the whole environment and in turn increases environmental temperature level and thus global warming. It again calls many problems and natural calamities like melting glaciers, flood, increasing water level in sea and ocean, and finally destruction of humanity from this planet. Just imagine, only decreasing number of plants may cause such a big problem which is not our only mistake. We are doing lots of such mistakes daily and it should not be a big surprise for us that one day the chance of life existence would be finished on this planet.

Still we have time, the get together effort of all of us may save the earth, environment and the life here. Environmental pollution needs a global level awareness and every one of us needs to understand our all mistakes, causes of pollution, ways to solve the problems created by it and most importantly how to stop the negative environmental changes and environmental pollution.